Analysis of The Golden Legend by Jacobus de Varagine

The Golden Legend is a compilation of hagiographies (“saints’ lives”), short stories depicting the lives of holy people during the Middle Ages. The primary collection was written by Jacobus de Varagine between 1259 and 1266, approximately. However, hagiographies were continually added to the collection for centuries. Jacobus de Varagine was an Italian chronicler, and best known as the archbishop of Genoa.

Written during a time of widespread conflict in Europe and re-popularized with the invention of the printing press, “The Golden Legend” is one of the most well-known texts of all time. Originally, it was written and dispersed in basic Latin for the enjoyment of Italians. However, it was one of the first texts printed on the European printing press in the early 15th-century with the development of modern Christianity. At the time, it was translated into many major European languages as the teachings of Christ spread throughout the European continent. 

Understanding the time and place of the rise of “The Golden Legend” in present time, many questions arise around the effects of its popularity and acceptance. Considering that the main audience of hagiographies were women, to what extent did Jacobus de Varagine provide medieval women the opportunity to indulge in the idea of defying gender-based societal expectations? Throughout the Middle Ages, women were heavily restricted under the law, residing more as property of their husbands or fathers than actual people. The stories of female saints suggest an underlying current of female defiance, where women chose to defy expectations of what they should accept or how they should behave.  Masked by a staunch devotion to following Christ, Varagine conveys female defiance through the refusal of mortal temptations, such as marriage and adultery. 

A popular story arc amongst female hagiographies detail women refusing marriage proposals, suffering the wrath of their suitor, and eventually being saved or healed by Christ. Typically, the saint is of high-birth or free-born and a noted beauty being courted by a high-power, notably Pagan, man. “The virgin Agatha was high-born and a great beauty… Quintianus, the consular official in Sicily, who was baseborn, greedy, and a worshipper of idols, was determined to get her in his grasp” (154). This scene depicts the ideal scenario for a woman in medieval times, to be a noble and attractive woman courted by a man with power and wealth. Though the standard for the ideal woman is higher than that of a man, it could allude to a man’s ability to climb the social ladder while women were regarded as commodities. In chauvinistic society, such as medieval Europe, the primary way for women to gain or maintain power was through marriage as women were generally not permitted to own property or vote.

Despite marriage being their only choice to maintain status, these women choose to devote themselves to Christ. Their defiance is met with violence from their suitors. “You have just two choices. Either you will sacrifice yourself to the goddess Vesta with her virgins, since your virginity means so much to you, or you will be thrown in with harlots and handled as they are handled” (102). The father of Saint Agnes’s suitor gave her to a brothel to be raped by his son and his friends as punishment for refusing his hand. 

However, they are spared, quite literally, by the grace of God in a deus ex machina fashion. For Saint Agnes, “he scorned them as cowards and in a fury rushed in to force himself upon Agnes, but the same light engulfed him, and since, he had not honored God, the devil throttled him and he expired” (103), the supernatural took place with the aura of God protecting her from harm. 

Saint Agatha faced a harsher fate of being tortured by Quintianus. Not only did she defy him by embracing her torture, “these pains are my delight! It’s as if I’m hearing some good news,” but she mocked him after the fact, “impious, cruel, brutal tyrant, are you not ashamed to cut off from a woman that which your mother suckled you with?” (155). Though this scene provides morbid comic relief, Agatha takes on gender norms by ridiculing Quintianus and refusing to concede to his demands. For this, she is also rewarded by God. While imprisoned, her breasts are restored by Christ. Though Agatha ultimately dies, it appears that she is taken up by God in a supernatural manner. What made these stories commendable by Christianity was the women’s undying devotion to God, even in times of immense struggle. 

Less inherent from the modern perspective, was the popularity of female saints who disguised themselves as men and lived as monks. 

Though the concept of medieval women desiring lives as monks is initially perplexing, these stories allude to a desire for male privilege.

Interpretation of texts can move in multiple directions. Though female defiance is discussed, there are various, more pessimistic, arguments that could be made. Most notably, the oppressive nature of “The Golden Legend” and its role in perpetuating gender specific-tropes. For example, subtle themes in these hagiographies include: women only achieving courage when serving God and the glorification of women’s torture and suffering. In each story, the female protagonist is not challenging expectations for herself, rather because she is attempting to appease God and Christ, referred to as men. Moreover, the only way for her to achieve true martyrdom is to embrace suffering without complaint, perpetuating the stereotype that women are passive rather than assertive. In the context of the Middle Ages, this text could be used as a guide to train women to believe they will be rewarded by God and praised by fellow Christians if they are docile. However, the underlying theme of Christianity could be used as a veil for normalizing female defiance without being censored. 

Additionally, some of these tales might not be about women, necessarily. The hagiographies of Saints Theodora and Marina could also be interpreted as the hagiographies of Saints Theodore and Marinus. There is no discussion as to whether these saints identified as men or women, rather they chose not to reveal their sex when accused of adultery, “after her expulsion, stayed outside the monastery for seven years, nourishing the child with milk from the herd” (366). Though Theodora had breasts, she opted to feed the child using animal’s milk. Though this could be interpreted as a genderqueer identity, or that Saint Theodora was unable to lactate because she was not pregnant.